Latest News

Animal Welfare – Addressing animal abuse and neglect in the veterinary profession

July 17, 2025

Ashley L. Powell, Cecily Grant,
Carleigh Cathcart, Heather Chandler,
Elizabeth Hodges, Alexandre Jalbert,
Marilyn Keaney

Veterinary professionals are trained to recognize the signs of animal distress in a variety of species and may determine if an animal or group of animals have experienced distress, based on information directly or indirectly acquired during behavioral observation, examination, and discussion with a client. These cues may be obvious or subtle, but a full assessment of all findings is needed to determine and differentiate among factors such as distress, abuse, and neglect (intentional and unintentional) (1). The definition of “distress” varies across provinces/territories and is often used as a generalized term to describe physical or mental discomfort or suffering. Five provinces (Quebec, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Saskatchewan) recognize anxiety as a form of distress.

“Abuse” typically refers to intentional incitement of animal distress and potential signs include:

  1. an animal that has injuries that do not match the provided history;
  2. the described cause of injury is deemed unrealistic or unlikely;
  3. the injuries are presented after an unexplained delayed interval;
  4. there are several injuries or scars;
  5. injuries at various stages of healing; or
  6. inexplicable patterns of injuries in the same or different animals in the household or cohort.

Fearful, submissive, or erratic behavior during examination most often reflects the animal’s discomfort in an unnatural setting, but in rare instances it may reflect protective responses to previous abuse. In some instances, the animal may appear calmer when separated from the client. Animal abuse may be predictive of human violence but not necessarily in all cases (2). “Neglect” refers to failure to provide basic needs or maintain animal health and may be intentional or unintentional. Potential indicators of neglect include:

  1. the presence of an ingrown collar/halter;
  2. excessive ectoparasite burden;
  3. poor body and/or condition score;
  4. poor fur/coat condition;
  5. overgrown nails/hooves/horns;
  6. severe dental disease; or
  7. chronic, unmanaged, painful lameness.

In any of these cases, the client in question may:

  1. demonstrate repeated disregard for veterinary instruction (noncompliance);
  2. frequently change veterinary practices;
  3. be indifferent to the animal’s distress;
  4. demonstrate suboptimal interactions with an animal or veterinary professional (e.g., rough handling);
  5. describe inappropriate methods of animal discipline; or
  6. provide a history with disparities or inexplicable diseases or death (2–7). This may include inconsistent telephone numbers, addresses, or ownership (3,4).

Veterinarians should remain vigilant when the client reports an injury that is not related to a specific cause (e.g., the animal “fell”), particularly in unusual situations, when additional details cannot be readily provided, or the description changes. It is also important to note that what may be considered neglect or abuse in one species may not result in distress or may be a part of generally accepted management or veterinary practice in another species. Signs of abuse or neglect may also be evident in deceased animals and consultation with a certified forensic veterinarian or veterinary pathologist may be necessary (8–10). If abuse or neglect is suspected, the veterinary professional may need to tactfully make non-judgmental inquiries, while remaining objective and avoiding overinterpretation (11). The veterinarian may elect to separate the pet from the client in order to observe any changes in behavior of either the pet or client. Thorough documentation should include information available following the ordinary course of diagnosis and treatment, detailed written and photographic/video record of behavior, measurements where applicable, radiographs, opportunistic samples (e.g., wound swabs, stomach contents), and accurate documentation of the conversation with the client, with attention to specific language used. The veterinarian may elect to consult with a forensic expert or veterinary pathologist. The veterinary professional should also note circumstantial risk factors including financial constraints, lack of compliance with veterinary instructions, husbandry concerns, and suboptimal home environment if known to the veterinarian.

Educating clients can avoid situations that may give rise to abusive or neglectful behavior, thereby preventing animal distress and removing the need to contact animal welfare regulatory enforcement authorities (see Reporting Requirements in Table 1). Clients may be trained to recognize clinical signs associated with distress and early manifestations of common diseases (e.g., dental disease or degenerative conditions). Educational efforts should include prevention strategies for conditions that negatively impact welfare, such as routine dental care, basic husbandry, socialization, nutrition, body condition scoring, and appropriate vaccination and parasite control programs. Veterinarians should also ensure that the client understands the environmental needs of a given species and provides appropriate housing that allows the animal to express its natural behavior. “Fact sheets” and online resources for a given species may be insufficient and clients should be directed to nationally recognized codes of practice and other standards or guidelines for animal care, including guidelines published by the Canadian Council on Animal Care, the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association, and the National Farm Animal Care Council, amongst others (12–16). Education and advice on proactive end of- life planning is essential and should be provided well in advance of declining health wherever possible to avoid unintentional neglect that could arise from misperceived expectations or client constraints (financial, schedule, ability, beliefs, etc.).

There is substantial evidence to support a link between abuse of animals and violence towards people, especially other members of the family such as children, spouses, and elders, regardless of demographic and socioeconomic status (4,17–30). According to recent reports, animal maltreatment is a strong predictor of interpersonal violence (IPV). Violence toward people may include physically or mentally abusive acts against the animal or use of an animal to coerce and control a human victim (26,28,31). In cases where the client may be a victim of interpersonal violence, they may appear intimidated, express not feeling safe at home, provide an inconsistent history, or may always be accompanied by an abusive partner. Conversely, if not accompanied by an abusive partner, they may demonstrate substantial changes in personality and potentially provide a different history when independent of the abuser. Children in attendance may provide responses that conflict with those of the client (20,31). Cross-reporting between family service agencies and appropriate enforcement authorities regarding concerns of animal and human abuse is encouraged and may involve provincial veterinary colleges, humane societies, societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals (SPCA), child protection services, victim services, or local/regional/ national police.

Cases of abuse and neglect may be complicated and involve multiple parties; any person may be engaged in acts of abuse and/or neglect, which may in rare instances include veterinary professionals and staff. If human violence is suspected, the veterinary professional may create a confidential space, ask open-ended questions, listen carefully, respect privacy, and provide appropriate available resources. Providing personal advice or inserting oneself in any conflict is strongly discouraged (26,32). As part of the One Health initiative, veterinarians and their staff have integral roles in prevention of interpersonal and community violence by reporting suspected cases of abuse and neglect (4,28,33).

The ultimate determination of whether a reported concern of animal abuse or neglect is in violation of animal welfare laws is made by the relevant animal welfare enforcement authority and not by the reporting individual (34). Investigating authorities vary by jurisdiction and may include government agencies, humane societies, or police (see “Reporting Authority and Related Links” in Table 1). As a result of reporting an animal welfare concern, veterinary professionals may, however, be asked to provide evidence to authorities to aid in determining whether a violation occurred. Also, they may be called upon to testify in court in cases of suspected animal abuse or neglect. Most cases of reported and confirmed abuse and neglect do not require the veterinarian to testify in court. Instead, the veterinarian may only be asked to provide a statement, medical records, and/or photographic documentation. However, should the veterinarian be asked to testify or has concerns regarding their legal obligations, consequences of reporting, or even the specifics of appearing as a witness in a proceeding, they should consider consulting and retaining legal council to protect themselves.

The role of a veterinarian, if called upon to be an expert witness, is to provide the medical reasons for concluding that the animal(s) in the case before the court were in distress and do so in plain language. As in all cases in which external expertise is needed to inform the decision, the outcome of a legal case regarding abuse or neglect of an animal, may be greatly impacted by the presence of veterinary testimony (35, Supplementary references S1–S5) Although this may be intimidating, the role of veterinarian as an expert witness is invaluable to a case and being called to testify in court is a professional duty and legal obligation (36). The veterinary community in general may greatly benefit from education and training opportunities offered by legal council experienced with animal abuse litigation, which could include witness preparation and/or mock trials.

Veterinary professionals should familiarize themselves with their mandated legal obligations and protections under the relevant animal welfare legislation in their practice location or jurisdiction. Veterinary professionals should also be aware that, in addition to animal protection/care/ welfare acts, reporting requirements may also be specified in provincial veterinary medical association regulatory documents, bylaws, and/or ethics codes (e.g., Veterinary Profession General Regulation in Alberta). A listing of provincial requirements and a summary are provided in Table 1.

In most areas in Canada, reporting of suspected animal abuse is mandatory for veterinarians, and immunity from prosecution for acting in good faith is afforded. At the time of this article’s publication, there is mandatory reporting with legal immunity for good faith reporting for veterinarians in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland/Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Mandatory reporting with legal immunity for good faith reporting exists for veterinary technicians in Alberta and Nova Scotia (Table 1).

The Criminal Code of Canada is a federal law that applies across all provinces and territories. It describes offences related to deliberate harm to animals and specifies maximum penalties for such offences (37). There are also municipal or provincial animal welfare statutes which vary from one province/territory to another; therefore, each operate independently when enforcing their local animal welfare laws. In addition, there is variation among provinces/territories for when and under what circumstances to report. For example, the New Brunswick SPCA Act states the “… veterinarian who believes on reasonable grounds that the animal has not been provided with food, water, shelter and care in accordance with this Act and the regulation” should report; however, other provinces in which reporting is mandatory refer to animal distress, neglect, and/or abuse as grounds for reporting (38). Policies and procedures regarding confidentiality and privacy laws under which animal welfare enforcement authorities operate may protect the identity of veterinary professionals when reporting an animal welfare concern. Veterinary professionals should note that provinces differ in reporting protections. For example, under the Animal Protection Act in Alberta, veterinary professionals would have immunity from breaching confidentiality if reporting to a Peace Officer, but not if reporting to a family service agency (39).

Three important barriers in reporting cases of suspected abuse or neglect are:

  1. lack of guidance and knowledge of policies and procedures;
  2. lack of protective resources, particularly when interpersonal violence is suspected; and
  3. lack of support from colleagues or legal counsel (31,40).

Veterinary centers and clinics should post the name and telephone number of the appropriate animal welfare law enforcement authorities in their area, establish guidelines for reporting, and provide training to all staff members on the recognition and reporting of suspected animal abuse or neglect. Resources for training staff may be available through provincial veterinary associations, humane societies, SPCA’s, or independent organizations (3,28,41–45). Recognizing and addressing animal abuse and neglect should be incorporated in veterinary school curricula and animal welfare continuing education. The following should be incorporated at minimum:

  1. recognition of distress in various species;
  2. how to adequately document cases;
  3. client communication;
  4. overview of the reporting and legal requirements and processes; and
  5. available resources at the local, provincial, and national levels.

Such education should be directed at improving animal protection and empower individuals to report concerns without fear of reprisal (46,47).

The veterinary ethical and legal duty of care is rooted in social and moral values that inform law, social order, and conduct. Although the practice of veterinary medicine is primarily focussed on animal health and well-being, it is exercised within a very much larger and complex social ordering context. Although veterinarians must necessarily be animal-centric, they must also be community health and social leaders. Animal abuse and neglect in all of its animal and social aspects is difficult and not without psychological or moral peril for those who attend such cases. As a veterinarian may be called upon at any time to deal with animal distress and abuse, it is therefore important to be well-educated and knowledgeable about available legal requirements, protections, and resources to ensure a satisfactory outcome for all parties.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This article coincides with the recent revision of the CVMA “Responsibility of Veterinary Professionals in Addressing Animal Abuse and Neglect” Position Statement (48).